🗓️ Unit 9
Learning

PSYC 181 – Intro to Psych

Emma Marshall – Instructor

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

August 1, 2024

What you will learn

Learning Objectives

• Explain how learned behaviors are different from instincts and reflexes
• Define learning
• Recognize and define three basic forms of learning—classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning

LEARNING

(credit “turtle”: modification of work by Becky Skiba, USFWS; credit “surfer”: modification of work by Mike Baird)

Loggerhead sea turtle hatchlings are born knowing how to find the ocean and how to swim. Unlike the sea turtle, humans must learn how to swim (and surf). As humans, we pride ourselves on our ability to learn. What processes are at work as we come to know what we know?

UNLEARNED BEHAVIORS

Reflexes motor or neural reactions to a specific stimulus

Instincts behaviors triggered by a broader range of events (e.g., aging, change of seasons)

Instincts and Reflexes - Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors that organisms are born with. - Help organisms adapt to their environment.

Reflexes: - Motor/neural reactions to a specific stimulus. - Simpler than instincts. - Involve activity of specific body parts. - Involve primitive centers of the CNS (e.g., spinal cord and medulla). - E.g. Human babies are born with a sucking reflex.

Instincts: - Behaviors triggered by a broader range of events (e.g., aging, change of seasons). - More complex. - Involve movement of the organism as a whole (e.g., sexual activity, migration). - Involve higher brain centers.

WHAT IS LEARNING?

Learning relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience

Associative learning when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment

In operant conditioning, a response is associated with a consequence. This dog has learned that certain behaviors result in receiving a treat. (credit: Crystal Rolfe)

Learning – a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. - Involves acquiring skills/knowledge through experience. - Involves conscious and unconscious processes.

Associative learning – when an organism makes connections between stimuli or events that occur together in the environment.

There are many approaches to learning. We will look at approaches that are part of behaviorism: - Classical conditioning - Operant conditioning - Observational learning

Learning also helps organisms adapt to their environment but learned behaviors involve change and experience.

Classical conditioning process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Ivan Pavlov

Demo
Researched digestive system of dogs

Classical conditioning – process by which we learn to associate stimuli and, consequently, to anticipate events.

Pavlov noticed that dogs salivated not only at the taste of food, but also at the footsteps of the lab assistants’ footsteps.

He realized that organisms have 2 types of responses to its environment; unconditioned (unlearned) responses and conditioned (learned) responses.

In the most famous example, dogs were conditioned to associate the sound of a bell with food. When the dogs heard the bell they anticipated food and began to salivate.

So how does classical conditioning occur?

Ivan Pavlov’s research on the digestive system of dogs unexpectedly led to his discovery of the learning process now known as classical conditioning.

Classical Conditioning

Before

Classical Conditioning

During

Classical Conditioning

After

Classical Conditioning

Higher-order conditioning an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus (the second-order stimulus)

• Eventually new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response alone

Higher-order conditioning

Before

Higher-order conditioning

During

Higher-order conditioning

After

Higher-order conditioning

Higher-order conditioning - an established conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus (the second-order stimulus), so that eventually the new stimulus also elicits the conditioned response, without the initial conditioned stimulus being presented.

GENERAL PROCESSES IN CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Acquisition the initial period of learning when an organism learns to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus

• Typically need short time interval between the NS and the UCS and repeated pairings

• But can occur when interval several hours and the pairing occurs only once (e.g. taste aversion).

Extinction decrease in conditioned response when UCS no longer presented with CS

Spontaneous recovery the return of a previously extinguished conditioned response following a rest period

If food stops being presented with the sound of the bell then eventually the dog will stop responding to the bell.

CURVE OF ACQUISITION, EXTINCTION & SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

The rising curve shows the conditioned response quickly getting stronger through the repeated pairing of the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus (acquisition).

Then the curve decreases, which shows how the conditioned response weakens when only the conditioned stimulus is presented (extinction).

After a break or pause from conditioning, the conditioned response reappears (spontaneous recovery).

Stimulus discrimination when an organism learns to respond differently to various stimuli that are similar

• If dog can discriminate between the specific bell sound that signals food and a similar bell sound that does not signal food

Stimulus generalization when an organism demonstrates the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus

• If an individual learns to dislike a specific spider, they will usually then dislike all spiders

Habituation learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change

• as a stimulus is repeated, we learn not to focus our attention on it

Classical conditioning can also lead to habituation.

Habituation – learning not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. - As a stimulus is repeated, we learn not to focus our attention on it.

BEHAVIORISM

John B. Watson

Little Albert
Used principles of classical conditioning to study human emotions

John B. Watson used the principles of classical conditioning in the study of human emotion. - Believed that all behavior could be studied as a stimulus-response reaction. - Believed the principles of classical conditioning could be used to condition human emotions. - Conducted a famous study with “Little Albert”.

LITTLE ALBERT

Although initially conditioned to fear specific stimuli, they were all furry and therefore through stimulus generalization, Little Albert came to fear furry things, including Watson in a Santa Claus mask.

There is no evidence whether Little Albert’s fear was long-lasting or not.

Watson exposed Little Albert to certain stimuli and conditioned to fear them. - Presented with neutral stimuli (rabbit, dog, cotton wool, a white rat etc). - Watson then paired these with a loud sound every time Little Albert touched the stimulus that caused him to feel fear. - After repeated pairings, Little Albert became fearful of the stimulus alone, such as the white rabbit.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

Law of effect:

• Pleasant consequence/desired result → behavior is more likely to occur again
• Unpleasant consequence/undesired result → behavior is less likely to occur again

Operant conditioning is a theory proposed by B.F. Skinner.

In operant conditioning, organisms learn to associate a behavior and its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Based on the law of effect: - Pleasant consequence/desired result → behavior is more likely to occur again. - Unpleasant consequence/undesired result → behavior is less likely to occur again.

E.g. When we show up to work (behavior), we get paid (pleasant consequence) so we continue to show up to work.

Skinner conducted experiments (mainly with rats and pigeons) to determine how learning occurs through operant conditioning.

Operant Conditioning Terminology

Positive to add something

Negative to take something away

Reinforcement increasing a behavior

Punishment decreasing a behavior

CLASSICAL VS OPERANT CONDITIONING

	Classical Conditioning	Operant Conditioning
Stimulus timing	Immediately BEFORE	Soon AFTER
Conditioning approach

An unconditioned stimulus (such as food) is paired with a neutral stimulus (such as a bell). The neutral stimulus eventually becomes the conditioned stimulus, which brings about the conditioned response (salivation). The target behavior is followed by reinforcement or punishment to either strengthen or weaken it, so that the learner is more likely to exhibit the desired behavior in the future. Stimulus timing The stimulus occurs immediately before the response. The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.

THE SKINNER BOX

To study operant conditioning, Skinner placed animals inside an operant conditioning chamber (Skinner box) containing a lever that when pressed causes food to be dispensed as a reward.

B.F. Skinner A Skinner box (credit a: modification of work by “Silly rabbit”/Wikimedia Commons)

REINFORCEMENT

Sticker charts are a form of positive reinforcement and a tool for behavior modification. Once this little girl earns a certain number of stickers for demonstrating a desired behavior, she will be rewarded with a trip to the ice cream parlor. Figure 6.11 (credit: Abigail Batchelder)

Positive reinforcement – something is added to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Everyday examples: - High grades - Paychecks - Praise

Negative reinforcement – something is removed to increase the likelihood of a behavior. Everyday examples: - The beeping sound that will only go away when you put your seatbelt on.

PUNISHMENT

Positive punishment – something is added to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. - Scolding a student for texting in class.

Negative punishment – something is removed to decrease the likelihood of a behavior. - Taking away a favorite toy when a child misbehaves.

SHAPING

1 Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior
2 Reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior
3 Begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior
4 continue to do this until only the desired behavior is reinforced

Shaping is a tool used in operant conditioning.

In shaping, instead of rewarding only the target behavior, we reward successive approximations of a target behavior. - Behaviors are broken down into many small, achievable steps. - Useful when teaching a complex chain of events. - Commonly used by animal trainers.

Process: 1. Reinforce any response that resembles the desired behavior. 2. Then reinforce the response that more closely resembles the desired behavior (no longer reinforce previously reinforced response). 3. Then begin to reinforce the response that even more closely resembles the desired behavior. 4. Continue to do this until only the desired behavior is reinforced.

PRIMARY & SECONDARY REINFORCERS

Rewards to reinforce behavior can come in many forms (praise, stickers, money, toys etc).

Primary reinforcers - those that have innate reinforcing qualities (e.g. food, water, sleep, sex, pleasure). The value of these reinforcers does not need to be learned.

Secondary reinforcers – those that have no inherent value. There value is learnt and becomes reinforcing when linked with a primary reinforcer. - Praise, a secondary reinforcer is linked with affection, a primary reinforcer. - Money is only reinforcing when it can be used to buy other things such as things that satisfy basic needs (food) or other secondary reinforcers. - Tokens are a secondary reinforcer that can be exchanged for other things. - Token economies are used in many settings to encourage correct behavior such as prisons, schools and mental institutions.

REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES

The best way to teach a behavior is with positive reinforcement. However, there are many ways that positive reinforcement can be administered.

Continuous reinforcement – when an organism receives a reinforcer each time it displays a behavior. - Quickest way to teach a behavior. - E.g. a dog receives a treat every time it sits when told to. - Timing is important - the treat must be presented immediately after sitting in order for the dog to associate the target behavior with the consequence. - However, if the trainer suddenly stops providing treats, the dog will stop sitting so another type of reinforcement is then used once the behavior is learnt.

Partial reinforcement – the organism does not get reinforced everytime they display the desired behavior (they are reinforced intermittently). - There are several types of partial reinforcement schedules.

PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCALES

Fixed vs Variable: - Fixed – the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements is set and unchanging. - Variable – the number of responses between reinforcements or the amount of time between reinforcements varies or changes.

Interval vs Ratio: - Interval – the schedule is based on the time between reinforcements. - Ratio – the schedule is based on the number of responses between reinforcements.

Types of schedules: - Fixed interval – reinforcement is delivered at predictable time intervals (patients take pain relief medication at set times). - Variable interval – reinforcement is delivered at unpredictable time intervals (checking facebook). - Fixed ratio – reinforcement is delivered after a predictable number of responses (factory workers being paid for every x number of items manufactured). - Variable ratio – reinforcement is delivered after an unpredictable number of responses (gambling).

PARTIAL REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES

The four reinforcement schedules yield different response patterns:

• Variable interval schedule - unpredictable and produces a moderate, steady response rate (e.g., restaurant manager).
• Fixed interval schedule - yields a scallop-shaped response pattern, reflecting a significant pause after reinforcement (e.g., surgery patient).
• Variable ratio schedule - unpredictable and yields high and steady response rates, with little if any pause after reinforcement (e.g., gambler).
• Fixed ratio schedule - predictable and produces a high response rate, with a short pause after reinforcement (e.g., eyeglass saleswoman).

Schedules of Reinforcement

GAMBLING AND THE BRAIN

Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill. (credit: Ted Murphy)

Sports betting and fantasy sports (optional)

COGNITION & LATENT LEARNING

Cognitive map a mental picture of the layout an environment

Latent learning learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it

Research conducted by Edward C. Tolman found that learning could still occur without reinforcement. This introduced the idea that there is a cognitive aspect to learning.

While studying rats he found that if he put them in a maze to learn their way through it, they would eventually form a cognitive map of it.

After 10 sessions in the maze without food as reinforcement, food was placed at the exit and the rats were able to very quickly exit the maze showing that they had learned the way out. This is called latent learning.

Latent learning – learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it. - Children may learn behaviors from their parents that they do not demonstrate until they are older. - A child may learn the route to school from watching his parent drive there but will not demonstrate this until they can drive themselves or have to get there by bike, walking etc.

COGNITIVE MAPS

Psychologist Edward Tolman found that rats use cognitive maps to navigate through a maze. Have you ever worked your way through various levels on a video game? You learned when to turn left or right, move up or down. In that case you were relying on a cognitive map, just like the rats in a maze. (credit: modification of work by “FutUndBeidl”/Flickr)

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Observational learning – learning by watching others and then imitating. Model - the individual performing the imitated behavior.

Yoga students learn by observation as their yoga instructor demonstrates the correct stance and movement for her students (live model).

Models don’t have to be present for learning to occur: through symbolic modeling, this child can learn a behavior by watching someone demonstrate it on television. (credit a: modification of work by Tony Cecala; credit b: modification of work by Andrew Hyde) Figure 6.17

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Modeling Process 1 Attention: focus on the behavior
2 Retention: remember what you observed
3 Reproduction: be able to perform the behavior
4 Motivation: must want to copy the behavior

In order to explain how learning occurred without external reinforcement, Albert Bandura proposed social learning theory.

He believed that observational learning involved more than just imitation and that internal mental states must be involved.

Steps in the Modeling Process: 1. Attention – focus on the behavior. 2. Retention – remember what you observed. 3. Reproduction – be able to perform the behavior. 4. Motivation – must want to copy the behavior.

Vicarious reinforcement where observer sees model rewarded making the observer more likely to imitate model

Vicarious punishment where observer sees model punished making observer less likely to imitate model

Motivation depends on what happened to the model: - Vicarious reinforcement – process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior. - Vicarious punishment – process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behavior.

BANDURA’S BOBO DOLL EXPERIMENT

In a famous study known as the Bobo doll experiment, Bandura studied modeling of aggressive and violent behaviors.

• Children observed adults act aggressively towards a 5 foot Bobo doll.
• The adult was then either punished, praised or ignored for their behavior.
• The children were then given the opportunity to play with the Bobo doll.
• If the child had seen the adult punished, they were less likely to act aggressively towards the doll.
• If the child had seen the adult praised or ignored, they were more likely to imitate the adult.

Bandura concluded that children watch and learn from the adults around them which can have both prosocial and antisocial consequences.