🗓 Unit 6
Motivation & Emotion

PSYC 181 – Intro to Psych

Emma Marshall – Instructor

University of Nebraska-Lincoln

July 25, 2024

What you will learn

Learning Objectives

• Explain several proposed theories of motivation
• Understand basic biological mechanisms regulating sexual behavior and motivation
• Explain the major theories of emotion

Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation

External

receive something from others

Intrinsic

personal satisfaction

Over-Justification Effect

Intrinsic motivation can diminish when extrinsic rewards are given

Explanations?

• Type of reinforcement
  • Tangible rewards → decrease intrinsic
  • Intangible rewards → increase intrinsic
• Expectation of extrinsic reward
  • Intrinsic motivation → decreases if external reward expected

Over-justification effect – intrinsic motivation is diminished when extrinsic motivation is given. Research suggests that when something we love to do, like icing cakes, becomes our job, our intrinsic and extrinsic motivations to do it may change. Once we are receiving an extrinsic motivation (like being paid) we may lose the motivation to do it just for enjoyment. Other research suggests the opposite, that certain types of reinforcement, such as praise, can increase intrinsic motivation).

Theories of Motivation

Instinct Theory
Behaviors driven by instincts that aid survival

Drive Theory
Behaviors are driven to maintain homeostasis

Arousal Theory
Individuals seek an optimal level of arousal

Instinct Theory of Motivation

William James

Instinct Thoery
Behavior driven by instincts (which aid survival)

But what about role of learning?

Drive Theory of Motivation

Deviations from homeostasis → create physiological needs → psychological drive states

Emphasizes role habits play in behavioral responses → If a behavior reduces a drive successfully, we are more likely to do it again

Purpose of drive states → direct behavior to meet need and restore balance

• Example: Hungry? Eat a snickers.

Arousal Theory

underaroused → bored → seek stimulation

overaroused → overwhelmed → behaviors to reduce arousal

Research says optimal arousal level for performance is moderate arousal

Yerks & Dodson Law

optimal arousal depends on complexity and difficulty of the task

Yerkes-Dodson Law – task performance is best when arousal levels are in a middle range, with difficult tasks best performed under lower levels of arousal and simple tasks best performed under higher levels of arousal.

Self-Efficacy & Social Motivation

• Self-Efficacy: An individual’s belief in their capability to complete a task.
• Social Motives: Behaviors influenced by societal norms and the desire for acceptance.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

In 1943 Abrama Maslow Proposed a theory of motivation that spans the spectrum of motives including biological, individual and social. One must satisfy lower-level needs before addressing the needs in higher levels. A person without food, water and shelter is unlikely to be focused on relationships or what people think of them.

A pyramid structure starting with physiological needs at the base and ascending to self-actualization at the top.

Sexual Behavior

Physiological mechanisms

Hypothalamus

Amygdala & Nucleus Accumbens

The hypothalamus plays an important role in motivated behavior, including sex.

Lesions to the medial preoptic area of the hypothalamus completely disrupt a male rat’s ability to engage in sexual behavior, but does not affect sexual motivation (he will still seek to gain access to sexually receptive females).

• Suggests ability and motivation to engage in sexual behavior are mediated by different parts of the brain

In humans: - Disorders that involve abnormal hypothalamic function are often associated with hypogonadism (reduced function of the gonads) and reduced sexual function. - Hormones secreted by endocrine glands (testosterone) influence sexual motivation and behavior

BY CONTRAST:

Amygdala & Nucleus Accumbens

• Involved in motivation for sexual behavior, but do not affect the ability to engage in it.
• Damage in rats results in a decreased motivation to engage in sexual behavior, while ability to do so is still intact.

Kinsey’s research

In response to the lack of empirically-based information on sex during the late 1940’s, Dr. Alfred Kinsey initiated a large scale survey. Behaviors thought to be rare were revealed to be much more common that previously thought. Influential in shaping future research on human sexual behavior and motivation. Findings: Women are as interested and experienced in sex as men. Both males and females masturbate, without negative health consequences. Homosexual acts are fairly common. Kinsey Scale – used to categorize an individuals sexual orientation.

In 1947, Alfred Kinsey established The Kinsey Institute for Research, Sex, Gender and Reproduction at Indiana University, shown here in 2011. The Kinsey Institute has continued as a research site of important psychological studies for decades.

Masters & Johnson’s Research

Masters of Sex (2013-2016)

Conducted a study of physiological responses during sexual behavior. Observed people engaging in sexual behaviors. Measured physiological variables (e.g., blood pressure and respiration rate). Measured sexual arousal (e.g. vaginal lubrication and penile tumescence).

Sexual Response Cycle

Stages

• Excitement: arousal phase (erection, lubrication)
• Plateau: Increased swelling and blood flow to labia minora, pre-ejaculatory fluid
• Orgasm: rhythmic contractions, ejaculation
• Resolution: return to unaroused state

Sex vs. Gender vs. Orientation

Sexual Orientation

Sexual orientation – emotional and erotic attraction toward another individual. A relatively stable characteristic of a person (not a choice). Between 3% and 10% of the adult population identifies as homosexual. What makes someone heterosexual vs homosexual? Previously thought to be caused by different socialization and familial experiences but research shows that those experiences can be very similar in homosexuals and heterosexuals. Genetic and biological mechanisms - research has found differences in brain structure and function between heterosexuals and homosexuals.

Gender Identity

Emotion

Feeling are complicated (optional)

Components of emotion

Components of emotion – physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experiences. Informed by experiences, backgrounds, and cultures.

Theories of emotion

Theories of emotion

James-Lange Theory
Arises from physiological arousal

Cannon-Bard Theory
physiological arousal and emotion co-occur

Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory
Composed of physiological and cognitive components

Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory
Determined by appraisal of stimulus

James-Lange Theory

See snake → heart and respiration rate increase (physiological arousal) → feeling of fear

Cannon-Bard Theory

See snake → physiological arousal AND feel fear

::: ::: :::

Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously, yet independently.

• Occur at the same time but are independent of each other.

Empirical Findings

• Individuals with spinal cord injuries (incapable of receiving autonomic feedback) could still experience emotion but in some it was less intense.
• Suppression of facial expression of emotion lowered the intensity of emotions experienced.
• These findings suggest that physiological arousal is not necessary to experience emotion but increases the intensity.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

See snake → physiological arousal and cognitive labels → experience fear

Emotions are composed of two factors: physiological and cognitive. Physiological arousal is interpreted in context leading to the emotional experience.

Believed physiological arousal is very similar across the different types of emotion, making cognitive assessment important. Palms sweating, heart racing, increased respiration rate (could be scared or nervous).

Lazarus’ Cognitive-Mediational Theory

Appraisal = Emotion

Emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus. Unlike the Schachter-Singer model, the appraisal occurs before the label. - Appraisal is immediate and unconscious.

The biology of emotions

Limbic System → mediating emotional response and memory

Hypothalamus – involved in activation of the sympathetic nervous system (part of an emotional reaction). Thalamus – sensory relay center, neurons project to both the amygdala and higher cortical regions for further processing.

Amygdala

The amygdala is composed of various subnuclei including the basolateral complex and central nucleus.

The amygdala has been a primary target of research concerning the biological basis for emotions, especially fear and anxiety.

Facial expression and recognition of emotions

BUT recognition and production of facial expressions of certain emotions are universal

Cultural display rule

Culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of displays of emotions that are acceptable. 🇯🇵

• Individuals from the U.S. express negative emotions like fear, anger and disgust both alone and in the presence of others.
• Individuals from Japan only express these emotions while alone.

Seven Universal facial expressions of emotion

Credit: modification of work by Cory Zanker

Carney Landis (1924)

In 1924, University of Minnesota psychologist Carney Landis began an experiment to study common facial expressions. Specifically, he wanted to know if everyone’s expressions of happiness, shock, disgust, etc. appeared the same. To conduct his experiment, Landis recruited a number of student volunteers, then painted the lines of their facial muscles black. He then exposed each participant to various stimuli in order to photograph their reactions. Some such stimuli included pornography, ammonia, touching reptiles, and beheading rats, the latter of which ultimately changed the experiment into something that resembled the Milgram Experiment. One-third of the participants willingly beheaded the rat when told, despite the fact they did not know how to do such a thing humanely. For those who hesitated upon the direction to kill the rat, Landis decapitated the animal for them.

Facial feedback hypothesis

Does smiling make you happy or does being happy make you smile?

Depressed individuals reported less depression after paralysis of their frowning muscles with Botox injections.

Lie detection?

“Myths” about Lie detection